Purposes of Site Investigations

Purposes of Site Investigations The purpose of a site investigation is to identify the ground conditions which might affect the proposed development. It enables better understanding of the site and immediate surroundings, which will enable safe and economic developments. They are a common requirement of the investors as well as the regulatory authorities. In the broadest sense, the ground conditions are understood to include not only the underlying soils and rocks but also the groundwater regime, any contamination and effects of any previous uses of the site The purpose of a site investigation is to identify the ground conditions which ma, any contamination and the effects o 1.1.1 The scale of problem Various reports over the past 25 years have shown that the largest element of technical and financial risk normally lies in the ground. Ground related problems have led to late completions and high cost overruns on the national scale. In an analysis of 8000 building projects, National economic Development office (NEDO) stated that one third of the projects overran by more than a month, a further one third overran up to a month due to delays due to unforeseen ground conditions. 1.2 Why carry out site investigations? The characterization of ground conditions whether for a greenfield or a previously developed brownfield site will include both the geotechnical and the geo-environmental issues. Site investigations can be required for both geotechnical and geo-environmental purposes and for many projects it would be advantageous to combine the investigations with resulting economics in cost, time and site disruption. The investigations should allow a comprehensive risk assessment of the ground conditions to be made from which a programme of risk management can be developed, The risks which may be defined can be health risks (from previous contamination of land), engineering risks (posed by difficult ground conditions), regulatory risks or financial risks, all of which may arise from unforeseen ground conditions and liabilities. The object of the site investigation is to characterize the ground conditions sufficiently to allow safe and economic design to be developed and to reduce, as far as possible, the occurrence and impact of unforeseen conditions. Objectives of Site Investigation The principal questions for site Investigation would be as follows: Suitability: Are the site and surroundings suitable for the project? Design: Obtain all the design parameters necessary for the works. Construction: Are there any potential ground or ground water conditions that would affect the construction? Contamination: Any possibilities of the site being contaminated? Materials: Are there any materials available on site, what quantity and quality? Effect of changes: How will the design affect adjacent properties and the ground water? In addition to these, it is necessary to investigate existing features of the natural ground. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=8HfURxCjPlkCpg=PP15lpg=PP15dq=site+investigation+case+studiessource=webots=plbbDn_SdMsig=FQLesVN6XE07K92lw2zwKKnXlTQhl=ensa=Xoi=book_resultresnum=1ct=result#PPA3,M1 What does site investigation involve? Site Investigation is the gathering of information about the proposed location of the project.The process of site investigation can be separated into the following areas: Objectives of Site Investigation (SI) Desk study Planning Ground investigation (GI) Trial Pits Boreholes Sampling Reporting The sequence of a site investigation is as follows: Desk Study Site Reconnaissance -Walk-over study Preliminary report or feasibility study Preliminary Ground Investigation Planning of main GI Preliminary report Main Ground Investigation Laboratory testing Final report On-site Groundbreaking Work Trial pits by hand or excavator Lightweight and Heavyweight boring and testing equipment Laboratory soil testing (eg. plasticity of Clays 1.3.1 Desk Study According to the NHBC standards chapter 4.1, all sites must be assessed by a Desk Study and Walkover Survey (Clauses D1-D3). Desk Study should be carried out for every development prior to any intrusive site investigation. The desk study is work taken up prior to commencing the work on site and the Ground Investigation. It should always be the first stage of the Site Investigation and is used to plan the Ground Investigation. The work involves researching the site to gain as much information as possible, both geological and historical. The desk study examines and draws together existing information from a variety  of sources to form an initial appraisal of possible ground conditions and to  consider past uses and current status of a site. This provides a preliminary assessment of the geotechnical and geo-environmental risks which may be associated with the site. Records of Previous SI reports are also helpful in a desk study. The many sources of SI data include previous company reports, Services records are also an essential part of the desk study, necessary to locate hidden services such as electricity cables, sewers and telephone wires. This in formation is usually provided free of charge by the relevant service provider. A suggested list of sources is: Local Authority; British Telecom; Electricity Company; British Gas; Water Companies. It is also essential to check for the location of former mine workings as these can considerably affect construction and lead to cost increases. The location of these mines may be difficult but help can be found from the Divisional Plans Record Offices of the National Coal Board It is essential when conducting a desk study that as much information as possible is obtained. Work at this stage of the Investigation saves much time later and vastly improves the planning and quality of the Investigation. 1.3.2 Walk-over survey Walk -over survey of a site can give valuable insight into potential ground condition problems (for example slope instability or shallow groundwater) and contamination issues. Such site visits often give rise to anecdotal contributions by local residents. The Site Reconnaissance phase of a site investigation is normally in the form of a walk over survey of the site. Important evidence to look for is: Hydrogeology: Wet marshy ground, springs or seepage, ponds or streams and Wells. Slope Instability: Signs of slope instability include bent trees, hummocks on the ground and displaced fences or drains. Mining: The presence of mining is often signs of subsidence and possibly disused mine shafts. Open cast mining is indicated by diverted streams replaced or removed fence/hedge lines. Access: It is essential that access to the site can be easily obtained. Possible problems include low overhead cables and watercourses The combination of desk study and walk-over survey is an extremely cost-effective  first stage in an investigation. It provides early warning of potential problems and a sound basis for the scope of intrusive investigation which is to  follow. The desk study and walk-over survey can also provide early recognition of site issues such as ecology and archaeology which may have profound implications in both programme and financial terms. 1.3.2 Planning a Site Investigation Dumbleton And West2 have discussed the planning and direction of site investigations. They state that the main investigation is the full investigation of the site using boreholes and trial pits and includes the preparation of the site-investigation report with revised plans and sections, interpretation and recommendations for design. They consider that there are two aspects to the site investigation. The geological structure and character of the site and the testing of the soil both in the laboratory and in-situ. They suggest that the planning should consider the following questions. Is the succession of strata known over the whole site and is there correlation across the whole site known? Are the different strata fairly homogeneous over the site or do local variations exist? Are there more complex areas of strata that require investigation or closer examination during construction? Will there be areas where the excavated material will be unsuitable for fill and will need to be replaced? Are there areas where needs to be assessed to ascertain working methods? Will any part of the site be subject to flooding? What contact will there be with water bearing strata and will ground water lowering methods be required during construction? Do requirements for the carrying out of special in-situ tests or the taking of undisturbed samples affect the conduct of the qualitative investigation? For example, with forethought a single trial pit may be made to serve both for examining ground materials and structure, and for the in-situ testing and the taking of block samples. 1.4 Ground Investigation Ground investigation is taken to be that other than the information available from the walk over survey as discussed previously. There are two principal methods of investigating the ground conditions, trial pits and boreholes. In addition, the reader should be aware of geophysical techniques such as seismic surveys, which are not discussed here. 1.4.1 Trial Pits Trial pits are shallow excavations going down to a depth no greater 6m. The trial pit as such is used extensively at the surface for block sampling and detection of services prior to borehole excavation. Depth Excavation Method 0-2m By Hand 2-4m Wheeled Back Hoe 4-6m Hydraulic Excavator An important safety point to note is that ALL pits below a depth of 1.2m must be supported. In addition care should be taken as gases such as methane and carbon dioxide can build up in a trial pit. Breathing apparatus must therefore be used if no gas detection equipment is available. Support for a trial pit generally takes one of three forms: Timbering Steel frames with hydraulic jacks Battered or tapered sides Three types of sample can be taken from a trial pit: Disturbed Sample Samples where the soils in-situ properties are not retained. Block Sample A sample that is not undisturbed but retains some in-situ properies. Push in tube sample Tube samples of the soil in a trial pit. When preparing a trial pit log, the following information should be included. The location, orientation and size of the pit; sketches of faces; depth scale; root structur; water level; seepage. In addidtion the weather at the time of sampling should be noted as many soils are weather dependant. It is extremely important when finished to reinstate the trial pit as well as possible. 1.4.2 Boreholes A borhole is used to determine the nature of the ground (usually below 6m depth) in a qualitative manner and then recover undisturbed samples for quantitative examination. Where this is not possible, for in gravelly soils below the water table, in-situ testing methods are used. Obviously the information gained from a borehole is an extremely limited picture of the subsurface structure. It is therefore essential to compare the results obtained with those that could have been expected from the desk study. The greater the number of boreholes the more certain it is possible to be of the correlation and thus to trust in the results. The two principal types of boring machine used for Site Investigation in the United Kingdom are light percussive and drilling machines. Light Percussive is the process of making boreholes by striking the soil then removing it and the most common method is the shell and auger. This is a general term to describe various tools suspended from a triangular tripod incorporating a power winch. The tools are repeatedly dropped down the borehole while suspended by wire from the power winch. The different tools used include: Clay Cutter Used in cohesive materials and is raised and lowered, using its own weight to cut into the material. Shell Used for boring in silts and sands. Similar to the clay cutter, but has a trap door at the bottom to catch material. Chisel Used for breaking up hard material such as boulders or rocks. Additional payment is required for chiselling as per the Bill of Quantities and permission is normally required from the Resident Engineer before work can start. Drilling is the process of boring normally by using a combination of a rotating action and a hydraulic ram. There are many different types of rig depending on access and type of ground expected. Hollow drilling rods enable a flush of water, air, foam or mud which is used to carry the cuttings to the surface as well as lubricating and cooling the drill bit. The three main types of drill bit are: Double tube is where the outer tube rotates and allows for the removal of the cuttings while the inner tube is stationary and prevents the core from shearing. There are different designs of tube varying the location of the flush discharge so as to prevent sample erosion. It is necessary for the hole to be bigger than the tube and so the diamond bits are attached to the outside of the hole, thus allowing the flush to return to the surface. Triple tube in corporates a third tube to protect the core even further during extrusion and can have either a split tube, which is removed, or a plastic tube to provide longer term protection. A less effective alternative is to incorporate a nylon liner in a double tube. Retractable triple tube is a variation where the inner tube is attached to a retractor and can extend beyond the cutting edge. This gives complete protection to the core in softer rock whilst in harder rock where this is not necesary, it retracts to become a standard triple tube. This is used in alternating soft/hard rock, typical of a weathered profile. Core bits are usually diamond tipped and are either surface set, where diamonds are mounted into a matrix, or impregnated where a fine diamond dust is used in the matrix. In softer rocks, the cuttings can clog up the matrix so the softer the rock, the larger the diamonds need to be. Tungsten carbide bits can also be used in the softer rocks. Sampling Sampling can be either undisturbed, of which in-situ testing is a form, or disturbed. The principal sampling methods used in boreholes are: SPT test: This is a dynamic test as described in BS1377 (Part 9) and is a measure of the density of the soil. The test incorporates a small diameter tube with a cutting shoe known as the split barrel sampler of about 650mm length, 50mm external diameter and 35mm internal diameter. The sampler is forced into the soil dynamically using blows from a 63.5kg hammer dropped through 760mm. The sampler is forced 150mm into the soil then the number of blows required to lower the sampler each 75mm up to a depth of 300mm is recorded. This is known as the N value. For coarse gravels the split barrel is replaced by a 60 degree cone. Core Sample: Core samples must be sealed with parafin to maintain the water conditions and then end sealed to prevent physical interferance. The mpst common of these is the U100 (see below) although other sizes from 54mm to 100mm diameter are used. The standard U100 has a sample area ratio of 30% so large ammounts of soil are displaced. A thin walled Piston Sampler reduces this to 10%. The sample is pushed or jacked into the ground as opposed to a dynamic action. U100: This is a 450mm long, 100mm diameter undisturbed sample. The tube has a cutter at one end and the driving equipment at the other. Behind the cutter is a core catcher, incorporating 3 arms that go into the sample as it is withdrawn, to prevent the sample from falling out. Care should be taken to ensure that the cutting shoe is as clean and sharp as possible. Bulk Samples: Usually taken from trial pits or in soils where there is little or no cohesion. Often called block samples. WaterSamples: Water samples should be taken as soon as water is first struck and the depth recorded. After a suitable period of time (usually 10-15 mins) the depth should be re-recorded and a further sample taken. A final sample should be taken at the end of the borehole and the depth to water regularly recorded. The sample is taken using a device known as a bailer, made from teflon or plastic it incrporates a float to trap the water and should be cleaned after each sample. The sampling procedure varies according to the type of strata in which the investigation takes place. A reccomended sampling procedure is listed below. Clays: Normally need undisturbed samples U100 every 1.5m or change of stratum. Blow count and penetration should be noted. If unable to obtain a U100 then bulk samples as above. If U100 does not full penetrate SPT test is required. Sands Gravels: Undisturbed samples are not practical due to the lack of cohesion. SPT every 1m or change of stratum. Number of seating blows should also be recorded. Bulk samples to be taken between SPTs. Silts: Alternate SPT and U100 samples at 0.75m intervals 1.5 Reporting The Site Investigation report should answer all the questions set out in the planning phase of the Investigation This should include an assessment of the viability of the proposed project. Included in the report should be a location of all the boreholes, trial pits, other excavations and their logs. These logs should give as much information as possible on the soil and rock structure as it is possible to obtain. Case studies http://www.baesystems.com/BAEProd/groups/public/@businesses/@sharedservices/documents/bae_home_market/bae_pdf_pes_pillinglane.pdf Oops Oops http://www.grm-info.co.uk/cgi-bin/casestudies/casestudiescontents.cgi

Economics; question and answer Essay

Introduction Question 1 War unrest in Middle East has negatively impacted on the price and quantity of oil in the market. The expectation of war from Syria and Iraq to spread to Middle East countries cause fear of possible shortages of supply as people may possibly do without oil. As a result people will buy more to store in preparation for future shortages. As the demand increases, price of oil goes up as people anticipate war unrest in the near future. When eventually the war sets in oil production is disrupted but people do not demand more since they had enough to cushion the scarcity (Kemp, 2013). In the graph illustration below, assuming the market was initially at the equilibrium. Since scarcity is expected in future people will by more (high demand) to spare for future. As the demand increase from 150 units to 350 units, the price also increases accordingly from $0.25 to $ 0.35. Graphical illustration    Question 2 Car and petro are complimentary good that are consumed together. Taxation on one of the complimentary products greatly influences the price of the other good. The increase in price of one good causes a corresponding decrease in the price of the other good and vice versa. For instance, taxing petrol increase its price, leading to high demand for high fuel efficient cars. Increase in demand for high fuel efficient cars results to increased price and vice versa. On the other hand increase in price for petrol leads to decrease in demand for low fuel efficient cars thus leading to their low price (Dwivedi, 2012). Many thus will buy high fuel efficient cars. Graphical illustration. Question 3 The fact that suppliers cannot sell live chicken directly to consumers coupled with the fear of mass death due to anticipated chicken flu results to high supply in the market. When supply increases beyond demand the price falls down. In addition since the health official are the only buyers a monopolistic competition comes into play since the price for chicken is not control by the market forces of demand and supply (Taylor,   &   Weerapana, 2012). The equilibrium the will shift to the right.    Graphical illustration    Question 4 Price elasticity of demand is the measure of responsive of the quantity demanded of a product to price change with other factors held ( Dwivedi, 2012). Price Elasticity of Demand (PEoD) = percentage change in quantity demanded (%ΔQ) à ·   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   percentage change in price (%ΔP) %ΔQ = 35 -50 / 50 Ãâ€"100 = -30% %ΔP = 8 -6 / 6 Ãâ€"100 = 33.33% Therefore, PEoD = -30 %/ 33.33% = -0.900 As economists we are not interested with the negative sign of our price elasticity of demand and therefore we take the absolute value. Therefore, the price elasticity of demand when price increases from $6 to $ 8 is 0.9. Interpretation. For the above case the demand for the good is price inelastic. This means that the demand for the product does not respond highly ton price changes. As evident in the computation, an increase of price by 33.3 % of the price results to a corresponding decrease of quantity demanded by 30%. The demand thus is not very sensitive to price changes. Question 5(a) Externality is an effect or a cost of the consumer behavior that may not be borne by the consumer but by the society. This mean s that the effects are caused by the consumer but the society bears the consequences. Tobacco smoking is among the activities that cause externalities. For instance narcotic in tobacco is believed to cause lung cancer to smokers. However the external cost of providing medical care to smokers is borne by non-smokers, by smokers and the government. Additionally environmental pollution due to smoking is borne by the family members of the smoker’s friends and even non-smokers strangers. Moreover, smoking has environmental externalities that involve deforestation to create room for tobacco growing.   Agrochemical used in tobacco production also adds to environmental pollution and degradation. Cigarette wastes are common in all cities, sidewalks and around homes. Although majority of these wastes are biodegradable, the filter and plastic wrappers and remain in the environment for long and the consequences of such pollution are felt by the larger society. Question 5(b) The Australian government in its attempt to control and minimize the external costs resulting from tobacco imposes high tax on tobacco. High taxation on tobacco increases the cost and as a result the demand for tobacco decreases. The tax imposed is transferred by producers to the consumers (smokers). When this happens, the demand curve will shift from right to left as indicated in the graph. Question 6 When entry barriers are eliminated in the market huge number of firms enters the industry resulting to excessive supply of commodities. In a market where entry barriers are limited the price of commodities is determined by the market forces since no firm has control over the market. Excessive supply that is created results to low prices of goods and services offered. In response the price the price goes down due to competition from other firm. As a result, the profit that firms were making initially decreases due. Graphical illustration Question 7 Oligopolistic market structures is a type of market where by small number of larger firms control the market jointly. The firms trade in almost similar goods. Oligopolistic firms do not engage in price competetion (Vives, 2001). Basing our argument on the game theory; where the actions one firm depend on those of other firms, it is evident that when for instance one firm lowers its price compared to other firms, customers will be attracted by the lower prices resulting to other firms making economical loss in their operation. In response to this the other will lower their price slighted below the initial firm eventually attracting the customers. The other firms in the market will make loss and eventually respond by making their prices much lower compared to other firms. This process continues until the firms sell at economically a low price that is illustrated by kinked curves (Vives, 2001).There to remain competitive and make profit do not engage in price competition.    Alternatives to price completion Oligopolistic firms compete by using alternative modes such as advertisement, product differentiation and barrier to entry in the market. Oligopolistic firms undertake a vigorous advertisement of their products both in national and international levels. Advertisement is made to make potential customers aware of the existence of the product in the market and the good qualities associated with such good and services (Taylor & Weerapana, 2012). Advertisement is carried out through mass media and product promotion. In addition oligopolistic firms constantly differentiate their products in terms of quality and always struggle to come up with new products design that outshine those of competitors. In the recent era, product differentiation has been enhanced by ever-growing technology and innovation. Since oligopolistic firms compete in almost similar goods and services coming up with new products with good qualities gives a firm advantage over its market rivals. For instance, phones manufacturing firms have constantly developed phone with new applications to remain competitive. Furthermore, the firms create market entry barriers to new firms, a strategy that ensures that the existing share of market. The common market barriers include the patent rights, important government franchises and the existing economies of scale. These are the barriers that ensure the market is not flooded by many firms, which in the end may reduce the existing firms’ share of the market control. References Dwivedi, D. N. (2012). Microeconomics. New Delhi, India: Pearson Education/Dorling   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Kindersley. Kemp, G. (2013). War with Iran: Political, military, and economic consequences. Lanham,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers Taylor, J. B., & Weerapana, A. (2012). Principles of microeconomics. Mason, OH: South-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Western Cengage Learning Vives, X. (2001). Oligopoly pricing: Old ideas and new tools. Cambridge, Mass. [u.a.: MIT   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Press

Dangerous Minds: Criminal Profiling

DANGEROUS MINDS: CRIMINAL PROFILING Author’s Note This paper was prepared for Into to Forensic Psychology PSY-501 taught by Professor Anna Moriarty Abstract Profiling is premised on the belief that behavior can be predicted based on knowledge of an individual's personality and personal characteristics. Criminal profiling limits this behavior analysis to suspects in the hopes that law enforcement will be able to narrow the pool of potential criminals and find the person or persons that committed the crime.Most law enforcement activity occurs after a crime has been committed and they usually have a very short time period in which to catch the criminal. If the police are lucky enough to get a case in the very early stages, time is even more crucial. This paper discusses how the use of criminal psychological profiling to identify perpetrators of specific crimes has become more commonplace in modern police work. Dangerous Minds: Criminal ProfilingCriminal or offender profiling as i t is sometimes referred to, is a law enforcement investigation technique that attempts to determine the type of person who may have committed the crime based upon an individual’s behavior at the crime scene or at multiple crime scenes (Devery, 2010). It is based on the premise that humans are creatures of habit and will follow a pattern of behavior. Profilers rely on the fact that normal human behavior; characteristics and patterns remain consistent, regardless of the action (Davis, 1999). A profile is a list of likely traits that the individual who committed the crime possesses.The purpose of the profile, like all other investigative tools, is to narrow the search parameters for police to a defined set of suspects that they can match to forensic or physical evidence if it has been recovered and is available (Davis, 1999). Criminal profiling is not a new concept. Early use of behavior analysis in criminal cases dates back to the 1800s. It was developed in response to violent crimes that often receive the most publicity and generate the most fear among members of the public (Davis, 1999). These are the cases that police are under the most pressure to solve quickly.Public perception of crime and criminal profiling is shaped by popular media, which gives an unrealistic view of what profiling adds to an investigation. Just like the â€Å"CSI effect† the public believes that a profiler can determine who did it, find that person and prevent further harm all in a half hour. Detectives who work these cases understand that criminal profiling is an important technique that is not worth much alone but when added to forensic evidence it eliminates suspects and builds a strong case against actual perpetrators.There are several types of violent crimes such as: murderer, rapes, molestation, abduction, armed robberies and so on. Some of these crimes are committed by people with a criminal past and some are at the hands of a person without any criminal history. T he sheer number of potential suspects can be staggering. The reverse may also be true, where no suspect emerges the magnitude of the investigation increases substantially. Most police departments especially those in less populated areas do not have sufficient resources or expertise to handle such wide reaching investigations (Davis, 1999).Types of Criminal Profiling There are two major types of criminal profiling, crime scene analysis and investigative psychology (Devery, 2010). Both techniques were created independently of each other but use many of the same procedures. John Douglas, a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) agent for 25 years in the Investigative Support Unit (ISU) is credited with the development of the profiling techniques that are currently taught and used in the FBI’s Behavioral Science Unit (Devery, 2010). His techniques were born out of the ISU’s determination to work unsolved violent crimes in the 1970s (Devery, 2010).The second major type of cr iminal profiling is known as Investigative Psychology. This approach to profiling was created by Dr. David Canter, a British psychologist. Investigative psychology attempts to match the dominant themes in an offender’s crimes to characteristic aspects of their lifestyles and criminal history (Canter, 1989). The goal of this technique is to achieve an observed, rather than intuitive basis for criminal profiling that can be measured and tested in a scientific manner (Canter, 1989).There are two other criminal profiling techniques that are in the testing stages and as such are not yet widely used or accepted. The first is Diagnostic Evaluation (Devery, 2010). Diagnostic evaluation depends on the clinical assessment of the offender by a mental health professional (Devery, 2010). In this approach the profile is based primarily on psychoanalytic principles and the individual practitioners’ clinical perceptions. The second, geographical profiling analyzes the spatial decision making process of offenders and relates it to crime victims and crime scene locations (Davis, 1999).This profile provides information on how perpetrators target their victims. How is a Criminal Profile Created? The act of developing a profile is a process not an event. A criminal profiler will analyze certain physical attributes of a suspect such as: race, sex, residential or personal location, marital status, occupation and much more (Devery, 2010). In addition, they will look for specific psychological characteristics such as: personality type, psychological tendencies and behavior traits (Devery, 2010).A criminal profiler will examine what happened at the crime scene, determine the traits of the person that committed the crime, and generate a summary of common traits and behaviors of that person. Criminal profiling involves studying a perpetrator’s behavior, motive, and their background history, in an attempt to guide the focus of an investigation (Winerman, 2004). Much o f the profile is based on historical data that has been compiled over the years which contains the evidence and methods used by criminals in previous crimes, as well as psychological and sociological studies of criminal minds (Winerman, 2004).The criminal profiler matches the evidence from the present crime against those used by other criminals and then looks for correlations based on probabilities (Young, 2006). Therefore the profile itself is the product of a series of calculated assumptions that compare past and present crimes. The FBI Crime Scene Analysis Approach: Organized or Disorganized? The FBI crime scene analysis approach to profiling is based upon the premise that the crime scene reflects the personality of the perpetrator.FBI profilers produce psychological profiles of the perpetrators using information gathered at a crime scene and by examining the nature of the crime itself (Young, 2006). Through years of study they have been able to identify certain traits that put m urderers into one of two groups: organized and disorganized. An organized murderer is often profiled as being highly   intelligent, socially competent and charismatic. A disorganized murderer is profiled as being of average intelligence, socially  immature, and a loner.Other differences between organized and disorganized murderers can been seen when examining the extent of planning the crime, how they target their victims and the manner of death. Organized killers exhibit systematic patterns of behavior and well-defined plans. They carefully select strangers as victims, demand that the victims be submissive, there is discipline in the actual manner of death, they leave little to no evidence at the crime scene and may kill at one site and dispose of the body at another site in order to avoid detection. In contrast, disorganized murderers are spontaneous in committing the crime.There is very little planning; they usually are aware of or know their victims, and the manner of death is a surprise attack, which results in a large amount of physical evidence at the crime scene (Davis, 1999). In order for a local agency to obtain a FBI criminal profile they have to request their assistance and the case to be analyzed must meet certain criteria. The case must involve a violent crime, the perpetrator must be unknown, commonly referred to as the â€Å"Unsub† for unknown subject and all major investigatory leads must have already been exhausted (Devery, 2010).When creating a criminal profile FBI profilers use a six-stage process (Davis, 1999). The first stage is known as input as it is marked by the collection of crime scene photographs and diagrams, police reports, victim and forensic data and all other information connected to the case (Davis, 1999). Also called the manner-and-method phase it involves an examination of all technical aspects of the crime. For example, what type of weapon was used and how was it used? Was the shot at close range? Was it a singl e shot or multiple rounds?The second stage is the decision process phase (Davis, 1999). The profiler reviews all data and information and organizes it into preliminary profile. During this stage the profile will categorize the nature of the homicide (e. g. , single, mass, or serial murder), the intent of the perpetrator (e. g. , was this the planned crime or did it occur in the commission of a separate crime), the nature of the victim (e. g. , whether the victim was a high or low risk target), and the degree of risk that the perpetrator undertook to commit the crime.The location (s) of the crime and the possible length of time that was taken to carry out the offense (s) will also be evaluated. (Davis, 1999). The third stage is crime assessment (Davis, 1999). The profiler will attempt to think like the perpetrator to gain insight as to his or her reasoning processes. For example, the selection of a victim is often random and based on patterns that only make sense to the perpetrator. The profiler will try to establish the reason for the crime and the motive for choosing a particular location or day etc. During this stage the profiler will categorize the Unsub as organized or disorganized.The profiler will attempt to find why he or she selected the victim, whether the crime was planned or spontaneous, how the crime was executed, the nature and the types of wounds on the victim, and any ritualistic actions such as displaying or positioning the body of the victim in a certain manner. The profiler will examine the perpetrator’s behavior at a crime scene in three parts: the modus operandi, personation or signature, and staging. The profiler is looking for indicators at crime scene that will translate into behavioral characteristics (Davis, 1999).The profiler is also keenly aware that not all criminal behavior is consistent especially if certain events have taken place since the past crime. Perpetrators are constantly changing their methods. For example, if an Unsub has a need for his victim to be submissive and his or her first victim fights him he may tie up the next victim to avoid that problem. Incarceration can also impact how a criminal will act in future crimes. Career criminals learn from their mistakes and other criminal while in jail so they may change their approach for the next rime. Violent and habitual offenders have a tendency to display a behavior known as a signature or â€Å"calling card† (Winerman, 2004). This is an action that goes beyond what is necessary to commit the crime. Violent crimes are often a result of the fantasies of perpetrator. When the criminal acts out his or her fantasy there is usually some aspect of each crime that is a unique, personal expression or ritual. For this offender committing the crime is not enough, they must also perform a ritual to complete the fantasy.The â€Å"signature† is what the perpetrator leaves displayed at the crime scene (Winerman, 2004). Unlike method, an offe nder’s signature remains a constant part of them. It may evolve, but will always retain the elements of the original scene (Winerman, 2004). Staging is another criminal behavior that profilers examine. Staging occurs when the perpetrator purposely changes a crime scene before the police locate it (Winerman, 2004). Violent offenders stage for two reasons: 1) to avoid detection and 2) to protect the victim or the victim’s family (Winerman, 2004).If a perpetrator stages a crime scene they most likely have or believe they have some kind of relationship with the victim. They will appear to law enforcement as overly cooperative or overly distraught as they try to deflect suspicion away from themselves (Davis, 1999). Staging to protect the victim or the victim’s family is normally done by a family member or the person that finds the body in an attempt to restore some dignity to the victim or to spare the family the horrifying details of the crime (Winerman, 2004).It is often difficult to determine if an offender has staged a scene or if they are just disorganized (Davis, 1999). The fourth stage is the criminal profile (Davis, 1999). The profiler combines all of the collected information and adds their experiences with similar crimes. The actual written profile can range from a few paragraphs to several pages. The profile will contain the Unsub’s physical features such as: age, gender, race and appearance. It will detail the background of the Unsub such as: possible occupation and employment, military service, education,  residence, familiarity with the crime scene area, and elationship history with other people. The next portion of the profile report will contain information about the Unsub’s psychological personality traits. The last section of the profile report will provide strategies for identifying, interrogating, and apprehending the perpetrator. The fifth stage known as the investigation is the transmission of the completed profile to the task force or department that is investigating the crime (Davis, 1999). The final stage is the apprehension of the person or persons that committed the crime(s) (Davis, 1999).The accuracy of the profile is then assessed and the case is added to the profiling database. The profile is considered a success if an offender is identified and confesses to the crime. It is assessed as open if new information is obtained and the profile is redone with the new profile replacing the original. The National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime â€Å"NCAVC† organization, provides behavior analysis profiles of criminals based on information gathered from federal, state and international laws enforcement agencies (Devery, 2010). NCAVC consists of four separate and specialized units.Behavior Analysis 1 is responsible for counterterrorism or threat assessment including arson and stalking crimes. Behavior Analysis 2 is responsible of crimes against adults including sexual as saults, kidnappings and missing person cases. Behavior Analysis 3 is responsible for crimes against children including abductions, homicides, and sexual assaults. Behavior Analysis 4 is responsible for the apprehension of violent criminals including actual and attempted homicides. This unit also develops and maintains VICAP Web, the national database for these types of cases. Devery, 2010). The Investigative Psychology Approach Dr. David Canter, an environmental psychologist at the  University of  Liverpool, believes that his profiling technique offers a comprehensive methodology because it is based upon a collection of theories, hypotheses and results of studies of the history and patterns of behavior as they relate to certain  individual characteristics (Canter, 1989). Investigative psychologists believe that crime is an interpersonal transaction, usually between the criminal and the victim, within a social context.In other words, the perpetrator is repeating interactions th at they have had with other people under normal circumstances. The profiler using this approach will look for connections between the crime and aspects of the perpetrator’s past and present focusing on which actions are clearly unique to the individual. This psychological profile is done in five stages: (1) interpersonal coherence; (2) significance of time and place; (3) criminal characteristics; (4) criminal career and (5) forensic awareness. (Canter, 1989). Criminal Profiling as a CareerCriminal profiling (also known as criminal investigative analysis) is a professional subspecialty in the field of criminal investigation (Winerman, 2004). As a result, most profilers are FBI agents instead of psychologists. However, criminal profiling is the combination of two very distinct disciplines: investigative science and psychology. Criminal investigators need to know the physical and psychological traits of the perpetrator in order to know who to apprehend for questioning and testin g. Criminal profiling provides this information.Classes in criminal profiling may be taken as a subsection of another course such as psychology or as part of a criminal justice degree. Forensic psychology combines criminal justice principles with mental health concepts. Creating criminal profiles is one area of application for forensic psychologists within the criminal justice field (Winerman, 2004). Experts estimate that there are less that 100 profiler graduates a year (Winerman, 2004). A primary reason may be that this type of training is offered in only a few graduate programs.According to the FBI, successful profilers are experienced in criminal investigations and research and possess common sense, intuition, and the ability to isolate their feelings about the crime, the criminal, and the victim (Davis, 1999). They have the ability to evaluate analytically the behavior exhibited in a crime and to think very much like the criminal responsible (Davis, 1999). Does Profiling Work? Assessment and Evaluation Statistics show that only 2. 7% of criminal profiling cases actually lead to identification of the offender (Alison, Smith ; Morgan, 2003).Studies have found that FBI profiling techniques provide some assistance in 77% of cases, provide leads for stakeouts solving cases 45% of the time, and actually help identify the perpetrator in 17% of cases (Alison, Smith ; Morgan, 2003). Despite research suggesting that criminal profiling is ineffective in determining the specific offender, it continues to be widely used by law enforcements agencies throughout the world. Still there is a lot of controversy about the validity of the FBI approach to profiling.With respect to the organized or disorganized classification, psychologists contend that nearly all types of criminals will display a certain level of organization so this indicator does not really rule anyone in or out (Young, 2006). Psychologists further argue that the methods used by the FBI profilers have no sci entific basis (Young, 2006). In support of this, they point to the FBI profiler’s reliance on their criminal investigation experience instead of analysis of evidence that is specific to each reported crime (Young, 2006).Psychologists further argue that each crime has specific patterns that cannot be generalized and applied to other crimes (Young, 2006). In order words, criminal profiling in arson cases should not be applied to criminal profiling in murder cases. They contend that each type of crime should be investigated by conducting numerous case studies on that specific type of crime then a dependable pattern could be established. Conclusion Criminal profiling is an investigative technique that uses the analysis of behavioral and psychological traits to profile suspects. Some profiles have led to the identification of the perpetrator.Currently there is a lack of scientific evidence in support of the techniques used in criminal profiling and the proclaimed successes of crim inal profilers. Academic criticism supports the need for further research in order to determine if these technique can be improved and used successfully by criminal investigators. References Alison, L. , Smith, M. D. , ; Morgan, K. (2003). Interpreting the accuracy of offender profilers. Psychology, Crime ; Law, 9, 185-195. doi:10. 1080/1068316031000116274 Canter, D. (1989). Offender profiles. The Psychologist, 2, 12-16. Davis, J. A. (1999).Criminal personality profiling and crime scene assessment: A contemporary investigative tool to assist law enforcement public safety. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 15, 291-301. Devery, C. (2010). Criminal profiling and criminal investigation. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, 26, 393-409. doi:10. 1177/1043986210377108 Winerman, L. (2004). Criminal profiling: The reality behind the myth. Monitor on Psychology, 35(7), 66. Young, T. M. (2006). Profiling pros and cons: an evaluation of contemporary criminal profiling methods. Hono rs Junior/Senior Projects. Retrieved from http://hdl. handle. net/2047/d10001281

German for Beginners Haus und Hof (House and Home)